来源：世界经济论坛
翻译：秘塔智能法律翻译
印度存在着严重的契约问题——在这一问题上，智能合约的使用可以在提供更大的信任和大幅提高效率方面发挥重要作用。
India has a contract problem – one where the use of smart contracts could play a significant role in providing greater trust and massively increasing efficiency.
最主要的挑战是:这个拥有13亿人口的大国的法院系统充斥着财产纠纷，这主要是因为所有权登记册超载，难以满足需求。另据报道，许多人不相信关键的财产数据被准确记录下来，或者合约被合法执行。
The central challenge is this: the court system of this huge nation of 1.3 billion people is clogged with property disputes, primarily because of an ownership register that is heavily overloaded and struggles to meet needs. It is also reported that many people don t trust that key property data is being accurately recorded or that contracts are lawfully enforced.
目前，印度地区法院审理的民事案件约65%是与土地和财产有关的案件，在这样一个规模庞大的国家，这是一个重大挑战。
At present, around 65% of civil cases handled by district courts in India are land and property-related cases, and in a nation this size that represents a significant challenge.
Punit Shukla，世界经济论坛人工智能与机器学习栏目印度C41R系统项目负责人，为世界经济论坛撰写文章，阐述了引入智能合约以帮助减少印度大量财产纠纷的论点，以作为印度经济论坛-印度创新计划的一部分。
Writing for the World Economic Forum (WEF) as part of its India Economic Forum – Innovating for India programme, Punit Shukla Project Lead, Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning, WEF, C4IR India, sets out the argument for introducing smart contracts to help reduce India s flood of property disputes.
世界经济论坛第四次工业革命中心也在规划一个项目，该项目将为区块链系统和非区块链系统之间的智能合约互操作性构建一个治理框架。
The World Economic Forum s Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution is also scoping a project that would build a governance framework for smart contract interoperability between blockchain systems and non-blockchain systems. Read on….
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引言:执行契约的必要性
Introduction: The Need for Contract Enforcement
根据1976年诺贝尔经济学奖得主米尔顿·弗里德曼(Milton Friedman)的观点，政府的三大主要职能是:法律和秩序、防务和契约执行。
According to Milton Friedman, the 1976 Nobel Laureate for economics, the three primary functions of a government are: law and order, defence, and contract enforcement.
在一个经济体中，所有经济交易基本上都是包括政府在内的两个或两个以上缔约方之间的契约，契约执行是经济运行的主要推动力。目前政府执行契约的作用主要是通过制定法律和规定契约各方应如何行事来履行的。
Contract enforcement is a primary driver of an economy where all economic transactions are basically contracts between two or more parties, including governments. The current role of contract enforcement by governments is performed primarily through enacting laws and setting regulations about how parties under a contract should behave.
不足为奇的是，大多数执行都是以威慑的方式进行的，即对违反约定的契约履行标准的当事人设定刑事条款，并在判决后予以执行。
Unsurprisingly, the majority of the enforcement is done in a manner of deterrence – setting up penal provisions for parties who violate agreed standards of contract performance and enforcing those provisions after adjudication.
撇开监管和裁决不谈，我们还没有意识到技术可以成为执行的主要工具。是时候进入一个智能合约时代了，它可以改变契约执行的方式。
Away from regulation and adjudication, we haven t yet realized that technology can be a major instrument of enforcement. It s time to dive into the age of smart contracts that can transform how contract enforcement is done.
令人略感遗憾的是，比特币和其他加密货币主导了围绕分布式分类账(尤其是区块链)破坏性技术的讨论。区块链不仅仅是一种数据库技术——如果我们这样看待它的话，它是一个非常低效的数据库——而是在各方之间建立信任的一种方法，这种信任可能有也可能没有一致的利益。更重要的是，它无需使用中介就能实现这一点。
It is slightly unfortunate that Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies dominate the discussion around the disruptive technology of distributed ledgers, especially blockchain. Blockchain is not just a database technology – it is a very inefficient database if one views it as such – but a way to establish trust between multiple parties which may or may not have an aligned interest. What s more, it achieves this without the use of an intermediary.
正如弗里德曼所说，政府是传统契约执行模式的最大中间人，并花费大量资源。但是，经济主体(投资者、企业家和消费者)对执行中介机构的信赖是有效、高效和公正的，是经济良性运行的关键决定因素。
As Friedman suggests, governments are the biggest intermediaries of the traditional mode of contract enforcement and spend significant resources on it. However, the trust of economic agents (investors, entrepreneurs and consumers) in the enforcing intermediary to be effective, efficient and unbiased is a crucial determinant of a well-functioning economy.
印度在世界银行《营商环境宽松指数》方面取得的巨大进步仍然被契约执行方面的低改善所破坏。在这方面，印度在190个国家中排名第172位。由于其裁决能力有限，智能合约可能不仅是印度的灵丹妙药，也是许多其他国家的灵丹妙药。
India s tremendous improvement in the World Bank s Ease of Doing Business Index is still marred by low improvement in contract enforcement. In this aspect, India comes 172nd out of 190 countries. As it grapples with a limited capacity for adjudication, smart contracts could be the silver bullet not just for India but many other countries.
拥有13亿人口的印度产生了大量的财产纠纷，但其法律数据基础设施并不总是能应付
签订智能合约
Enter Smart Contracts
智能合约是在满足特定条件时执行的程序性功能。这些用代码编写的可自我执行的协议由分散账本上的资产或交易登记处提供支持，从而消除了登记册信息中出现任何损坏的可能性。这些契约消除了任何一方不履行契约的可能性，因此强制执行契约不需要任何法律机制。
Smart contracts are programmatic functions executed when certain specified conditions are fulfilled. These self-enforceable protocols written in code are powered by asset or transaction registries on a decentralized ledger, thus removing the chance of any corruption in the registry information. These contracts eliminate the chances of non-performance of the contract by either party, so no legal mechanism is required to enforce the contract.
以买卖双方之间的土地资产交易为例——区块链上编码和部署了一个智能合约，以将土地所有权从卖方转移到买方。
Take, for example, a transaction of a land asset between a buyer and a seller – a smart contract is encoded and deployed on the blockchain to transfer the title of the landholding from the seller to the buyer.
智能合约浏览分散的土地资产登记处，核实出卖人的所有权主张，确认买受人是否有足够的资金购买土地、启动付款借记、确认贷记到出卖人的账户、确保土地税费扣除并上缴国家(假设国家机关为区块链上的参与节点)，然后将土地所有权转移给购买方，并将该等信息添加到登记处。
The contract scans the distributed registry of land assets, verifies the title ownership claim of the seller, validates if the buyer has adequate capital to buy the land, initiates a payment debit, confirms a credit to the seller s account, ensures the land duties and taxes are deducted and paid to the state (assuming the state agency is a participant node on the blockchain) – and then transfers the land title ownership to the buyer and adds that information to the registry.
这一过程消除了不履行的可能性，因为它是自动执行且不可否认的(契约各方不能否认契约的履行或不履行)。由于履行现在是由技术规定的，当事人不会因违反契约而引起法院纠纷。
This process eliminates the chance of non-performance as it is self-executing and non-repudiating (the parties to the contract can t deny the contract execution or failure). Since performance is now mandated by technology, parties will not experience breach of contracts leading to court disputes.
这里出现的一个关键问题是，为什么不能通过一个集中的平台而不是分散账本来实现这一点?这就是信任的问题所在。以土地资产为例，国家保留权利记录(RoR)——印度土地资产登记处(Registration of Land assets)。不过， RoR不是土地所有权的最终证明(称为"推定土地所有权制度")。
A crucial question that arises here is why this can t be done through a centralized platform instead of a decentralized ledger? That is where the issue of trust comes in. Taking the case of land assets further, the state maintains the Record of Rights (RoR) – a registry of land assets in India. However, the RoR is not definitive proof of land ownership (known as presumptive land titling system ).
值得注意的是，在印度的许多邦，土地所有权的转让涉及到行政当局发出通知，检查该地区广大居民的反对意见或反诉。实际上，这是一种"协商一致协议"的物理形式，由社区对交易进行验证(或报告无效)。
It is interesting to note that a land titling transfer in many states in India involves a notice broadcast by the administration to check for an objection or counterclaim from the extended community of residents in the area. In effect, this is a physical form of "consensus protocol" where validation of the transaction is done by the community (or invalidation is reported).
由于印度地区法院办理的民事案件中有三分之二(地区法院承担了超过80%的未决案件)是与土地和财产有关的案件，对政府维持的 RoR的信任度很低。
As two-thirds of civil cases handled by district courts in India (district courts contribute over 80% of all pending cases) are land and property-related cases, low trust in the government-maintained RoR becomes evident.
财产纠纷充斥着法庭
分散的登记处
A Decentralized Registry
建立分散的土地和不动产资产登记处，使社区能够参与智慧契约，可以释放印度土地/资产市场的潜力。
Building a decentralized registry of land and property assets and enabling the community to engage with smart contracts could unlock the potential of the land/asset market in India.
但是区块链和智能合约的威力只有在它们能够可靠地与其他外部非区块链系统交互时才能充分实现。在数据很少生成和存储在分布式分类账上的"真实"世界中，智能合约需要治理模型来协调系统间通信。
But the power of blockchain and smart contracts is only fully realized when they can reliably interact with other external, non-blockchain systems. In the "real" world where data is rarely generated and stored on a distributed ledger, smart contracts need governance models to harmonize inter-system communication.
许多国家系统(公民服务门户、身份系统、实时支付系统、财产和土地登记、保险和福利计划)是一个国家重要的基础设施平台。虽然智能合约的编码功能已经从仅仅能够执行类似货币的事务发展到完全的可编程性，但它仍然无法为所有可能的契约场景编写代码。因此，区块链提高效率和透明度的创新潜力只有在智能合约系统能够与非区块链系统和自动执行事务可靠通信时才能实现。
Many national systems (citizen service portals, ID systems, real-time payments systems, property and land registries, insurance and welfare schemes) are major infrastructural platforms for a country. While the coding capability of smart contracts has progressed from just being able to execute currency-like transactions to full programmability, it is still not able to code for all possible contract scenarios. The innovative potential of blockchain, therefore, to drive efficiency and transparency can only be realized if smart contract systems can communicate reliably with non-blockchain systems and auto-execute transactions.
潜在系统间通信的一个例子是将智能合约与印度的支付服务 UPI (统一支付接口，一种移动优先、实时、点对点、对账支付系统)相结合。在这种情况下，智能合约可以在天气导致作物受损的情况下将保险索赔转移给农民，通过整合卫星数据验证作物损害并由 UPI将索赔转入农民的银行账户，从而完全消除了人类的酌情权。
An example of potential inter-system communication is integrating smart contracts with India s payment service UPI (Unified Payments Interface, a mobile-first, real-time, peer-to-peer, account-to-account payment system). With this in place, smart contracts could transfer insurance claims to farmers in case of weather-induced crop damage, completely eliminating human discretion by integrating with satellite data to validate crop damage and transfer the claim to the farmer s bank account by UPI.
世界经济论坛第四次工业革命中心正在确定一个项目的范围，该项目将为区块链系统和非区块链系统之间的智能合约互操作性构建一个治理框架。
The World Economic Forum s Centre for the Fourth Industrial Revolution is scoping a project that would build a governance framework for smart contract interoperability between blockchain systems and non-blockchain systems.
这样的模型将允许区块链项目更快地扩展并更快地准备生产。互操作性标准和通信协议可以帮助解决许多用例中固有的问题，例如取消中介和减少福利转移的泄漏，实时结算对生产和提供电网的可再生能源的经济奖励，甚至利用 UPI支付平台执行卢比计价的智能合约。
Such a model will allow blockchain projects to scale faster and be production-ready more quickly. Interoperability standards and communication protocols can help solve the problems inherent in many use cases, such as disintermediation and reduction in leakages of welfare transfers, real-time settlement of economic incentives for renewable energy produced and contributed to the grid and even executing Rupee denominated smart contracts by using the UPI payment platform.
现在，我们应该看看技术，以改革我们现有的机制的第三个政府职能-契约执行。
It is high time that we look at technology to revamp our existing mechanisms of the third government function – contract enforcement.
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